Qingyuan Temple Jiuhuashan Anhui China

The site, Vikramshila Mahavihara, located in Antichak village, Bhagalpur district, Bihar, India, stands as a profound testament to India's millennia-spanning cultural heritage, particularly its ancient and continuous tradition of Buddhist learning and architectural sophistication [4] . Established in the late 8th century CE by the Pala emperor Dharmapala, this monastic university was a premier center for Vajrayana Buddhism, reflecting the indigenous Indic architectural styles prevalent during the Early Medieval period [4] . The Mahavihara's layout is a massive quadrangular structure, measuring approximately 330 meters on each side, enclosing a central cruciform stupa [5]. This central stupa, a two-terraced brick structure, rises about 15 meters from the ground level and is accessible via a flight of steps on its northern side . Each of the four cardinal directions of the stupa features a protruding chamber, originally housing colossal stucco images of the seated Buddha, three of which were found in situ during excavations . These chambers are fronted by a pillared antechamber and a separate pillared mandapa [5]. The walls of both terraces of the central stupa are richly adorned with mouldings and thousands of terracotta plaques, showcasing the high excellence of terracotta art that flourished under the Pala dynasty from the 8th to the 12th century CE [5]. These plaques depict a diverse range of subjects, including Buddhist deities such as Buddha, Avalokiteshvara, Manjusri, Maitreya, Jambala, Marichi, and Tara, alongside scenes from Buddhist narratives, social life, hunting, and even other Indian deities like Vishnu, Parvati, Ardhanarisvara, and Hanuman . The monastery complex itself comprises 208 monastic cells, with 52 cells on each of the four sides, opening into a common verandah . These cells, measuring 4.15 x 1.5 meters, were designed for individual monks or students, with some featuring brick-arched underground chambers likely used for confined meditation [5] . The outer wall of the monastery incorporates 20 projected circular and 20 rectangular cells, spaced at intervals of 21 to 23 meters, with provisions for three beds in each room [5]. A notable engineering innovation at Vikramshila is the rectangular library building, situated approximately 32 meters south of the main monastery and connected by a narrow corridor . This structure was ingeniously air-conditioned by cooled water from an adjoining reservoir, circulated through a system of vents in the back wall, a technique likely employed to preserve delicate palm-leaf manuscripts in the humid climate of the Indo-Gangetic plains [4] . The construction primarily utilized baked bricks, a locally available and durable material, which also contributed to the thermal mass of the buildings, helping to regulate internal temperatures [4] [5]. An elaborate network of underground drains, constructed from baked clay pipes, managed rainwater runoff and wastewater, ensuring hygiene and preventing waterlogging [4]. The site is currently under the protection and management of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), with ongoing conservation efforts and recent renewed excavation work [1]. A site museum displays a large number of antiquities unearthed during excavations, including sculptures, coins, and terracotta emblems, providing visitors with a tangible connection to its rich past [2] . The site is operational and accessible to visitors, offering a profound glimpse into India's enduring legacy of intellectual and spiritual pursuit.