Scripts

Devanagari is an abugida script originating from the Brahmi script (3rd c. BCE), evolved through Gupta and Nagari variants, achieving its modern form around 1000 CE. The name means "of the divine city" (deva-nagari). Used for Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi, Nepali, and 120+ languages. Characterized by the distinctive horizontal line (shirorekha) connecting characters. Extensively found in North Indian temple inscriptions from 8th century onward, particularly during Gurjara-Pratihara, Pala, and Chandela dynasties.

Grantha is a Brahmic script that originated in South India around 5th century CE, primarily used for writing Sanskrit texts in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Evolved from Pallava Grantha (4th-8th c. CE), it served as a bridge script allowing Sanskrit to be written in Dravidian-speaking regions. Used extensively in bilingual temple inscriptions alongside Tamil script, particularly during Pallava, Chola, and Vijayanagara periods. The modern Tamil script descended from Chola-Pallava variant. Grantha also influenced Malayalam, Thai, Javanese, and Balinese scripts.

Kannada is a Brahmic abugida script evolved from Kadamba script (around 450 CE), used primarily for writing Kannada language. The modern form emerged during Chalukya dynasty (11th-12th c. CE) and flourished under Hoysala Empire (1026-1343 CE). Character ized by rounded letters suited for writing on palm leaves. Found extensively in Karnataka temple inscriptions, especially at Belur, Halebidu (UNESCO sites), and Vijayanagara monuments. The script influenced Telugu and Malayalam scripts significantly.

Malayalam script descended from Grantha script by 14th century CE, intermixing Vatteluttu (rounded script from Tamil-Brahmi), Kolezhuttu, and Grantha. Has 15 vowels and 42 consonants plus unique chillu letters (pure consonants). Old Malayalam (9th-13th c.) written in Vatteluttu with Grantha for Sanskrit loanwords. Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan (16th c.) refined modern script form. Found extensively in Kerala temple inscriptions from Kulasekhara/Chera dynasties. Earliest: Vazhappally inscription (~830 CE).

Odia script evolved from Eastern Brahmi through Kalinga script (6th-10th c. CE), characterized by distinctive rounded letter forms developed for palm leaf writing. Has 12 independent vowels and 40 consonants. Earliest Odia inscription: Urjam (1051 CE). Extensively used in Eastern Ganga dynasty inscriptions, especially Konark Sun Temple (13th c. CE, Narasimhadeva I). Madala Panji chronicles from Puri Jagannath Temple document Odia script evolution. Modern form standardized in 19th-20th c. with printing. Known as Oriya script historically.

Tamil is an abugida script with origins in Tamil-Brahmi (3rd c. BCE), evolving through Vaṭṭeḻuttu and Pallava-Chozha variants to its modern form. Comprises 12 vowels (uyir), 18 consonants (mey), and the unique aaytham (ஃ) character, forming 247 total characters. The oldest continuously used script in India. Extensively found in South Indian temple inscriptions, particularly during Chola, Pallava, and Pandya dynasties (9th-13th c. CE). Characterized by rounded letter forms suited for palm leaf writing.

Telugu is a Brahmic abugida script evolved from Kadamba-Pallava scripts during Eastern Chalukya period (7th-12th c. CE). Has 16 vowels and 36 consonants. Gained prominence under Kakatiya dynasty (1158-1324 CE) when Telugu replaced Kannada in royal inscriptions, reflecting political independence. Extensively found in Vijayanagara inscriptions (~7,000 total, Telugu/Kannada/Tamil/Sanskrit mix). Characterized by rounded letter forms influenced by palm leaf writing. Similar to Kannada due to shared Kadamba origin.